Compare and Contrast two major theories of Social Inequality – Can Inequality be eliminated?

A major theory of inequality is the one propounded by Karl Marx who argues that social inequality is not natural but stems from the construction of the unfair capitalist system. Marx sees the workers or the proletariat as being exploited for their labour by those that own the means of production Marxists see social inequality as manifested in the fact that workers do not benefit from the wealth that their labour produces instead Marx claims that they are 1'pauperized'. The poorer working classes get poorer whilst the rich enjoy getting richer this is illustrated by income inequalities all over the world; the poorest 20% of people in the USA have seen their incomes fall by 19% whilst the top 5% saw their incomes rise, in Australia the richest ten per cent of the population owns about half the nation's wealth in the USA its over two thirds. A limitation of Marx theories on inequality is that it only focuses on economic inequality. Many sociologists would agree with Marx that economic inequality is the most significant form of inequality at the moment whilst acknowledging that economic inequality and social inequality, as we live in a modern multi- cultural capitalist country are inextricably linked and are affected significantly by gender, racial, religious and ethnic inequality. Ethnic background is both an indicator and factor of social inequality. In Australia for example, Aborigines are over represented in the working class as well as underclass and under-represented in the top stratification of earnings and class. Social inequality thus seems to be a consequence of ascribed status: of the status that our skin colour our gender and/or our social class confers on us. Arguably there is scope for social mobility in our current system as our ascribed statuses can be overshadowed by our achieved status especially as we are not generally ascribed to a lower cast iron status at birth that prevents social mobility (unlike the untouchables in the caste system in other cultures) Theoretically we can ascend the social ladder, however low we start, as there is equality of opportunity. This is the view propounded by functionalists such as Davis and Moore. Our achievements in our meritocratic system determine the social position that we hold. Davis and Moore acknowledge that there are perhaps socially unequal jobs yet they are all important for society to function. Thus to maintain society each role needs to be filled so ‘effective role allocation' is an essential functional perquisite. However as some jobs require more skills and training than others there is a need for differing social and financial incentives to entice people to undergo extensive training and take up such jobs. Davis and Moore assert that role allocation and thus people's socio-economic status is fair as it is based on merit, those in the top roles earning the most are those that are best equipped for their role. Whilst Marx sees the current system as exploitative Davis and Moore see it and the inequality that accompanies it as legitimate and functionally advantageous to society. Such a theory though, does not take into account gender and racial inequalities or concepts such as culture capital old boys club and the glass ceiling The culture capital theory suggested by sociologist Pierre Bordieu explains that the education system prises and is geared toward the culture of the middle and upper classes thus those from a working class background find that the skills and knowledge derived within their culture is ‘devalued' and they therefore do not have equal opportunities to excel academically which of course restricts their employment choices and socio-economic position in the future. We can see therefore that inequality is institutionalised, as Marx alludes to in the labour market, and that education is perhaps the first agent of stratification. M. Tumin has also criticised Davis and Moore by condemning their notion of functional importance as questionable and too vague. It ignores the differential of power. According to Tumin differences in pay and prestige will be affected by, and often reflect differences in the relative power of groups and individuals in the labour market rather than the job's actual functional importance. Therefore differences in pay can actually be more a reflection of the relative strength of the workers' union and bargaining potential rather than of functional importance e.g. coal miners and farm labourers. Davis and Moore suggest that inequality is universal as it can be identified in all societies. Such views would suggest that inequality is not eliminable. Marxists ideas contradict this view. Marx claimed that inequality could be eliminated with the development of class consciousness and the abandonment of capitalism however the Soviet communism model proved that in the modern world this was untenable. Equality came at a high price- by the collapse of communism in 1989 equality had come to mean people simply had equally low living standards. Economic and social equality came at the expense then, of basic human rights, the sociologist Peter Saunders stated socialist societies are2 ‘always more repressive than the capitalist ones since they must get people to fulfil their role without the incentive of economic rewards.' However it is clear that the Soviet system was successful in reducing and even eliminating inequality in many spheres of life. Even if it didn't respect human rights in all cases, it guaranteed basic needs such as housing employment education medical care and even holidays. 3The satellite states had embraced capitalism after communism expecting to reap the economic benefits of a capitalist system in fact, living standards actually fell. Russia, after communism rapidly transformed from an almost standardized society to one that was plagued by socio-economic polarisations, according to Goskomstat, the income ratio between the wealthiest 10% of the population and the bottom 10% was about 4:1 in 1990 by 1996 it had sky rocketed to 13:1. Women's rights have also regressed significantly in Russia currently approximately 80% of the unemployed in Russia are women. Such evidence seems to support a Marxist framework of inequality as not inevitable but sustained by a capitalist system. Marxists claim that a capitalist society is maintained through divide and rule. Thus when a class ‘stopped being a class in itself and started being a class for itself' then the group could recognise their inferior social position, class solidarity would develop as the class recognised their shared interests and goals and they would then act together to displace the bourgeoisie. However because inequality is so multilayered class divisions are easy to maintain as differences in gender and race also generate inequality thus even if class differences were eliminated these would persist and perhaps increase. Blackness has historically been classed as inferior, perceived inferiority has been harmful since those who see themselves as superior usually hold the legal power and status in the society and can therefore cement in law the inferiority of the blacks or other ethnic groups. Loury calls for4 ‘major structural remedies to speed up progress toward racial equality' which will in turn reduce the economic inequality that ethnic minority groups face. The New right perspective argues that social inequality has persisted throughout the ages; Saunders states that ‘there has never been a completely egalitarian society'. Every society has its male and females, rich and poor it's big and small and it's old and young. In this absolute sense there is some truth to the assertion that some degree of inequality is inevitable. However inequality itself is unequal it varies with time and culture which validates the theory that inequality is socially constructed and thus can be eliminated. In Britain granted we have moved from the stark extremes of inequality of slavery in imperial Britain but only to an ‘acceptable' economic and social inequality that is institutionalized within our capitalist system, unequal access is built into the structures that support and maintain our contemporary society. It can be argued that the current degree of inequality is not advantageous to society and a reflection of unequal talents in society as Davis and Moore claim nor is it an inevitable product of the capitalist system as Marxists argue; it is a matter of choice. Through the lax way we regulate corporations compared with the harsh regulations placed on workers unions, how we distribute the tax burden and how we set wages. We limit the power of workers thus limiting their socio-economic position.

Video Laryngoscopes For Intubations Health And Social Care Essay

Difficult and failed tracheal cannulation remains a taking cause of anaesthetic morbidity and mortality despite progresss in schemes both to predict and to pull off [ 5 ] the hard air passage. Many hard cannulations are non recognized until after initiation of anaesthesia [ 3 ] . Despite the handiness of options, the Macintosh Laryngoscope remains the most widely used. Endotracheal cannulation, considered to be the gilded criterion in procuring the air passage, is normally performed utilizing a direct Laryngoscope. In add-on to hapless light, troubles in executing conventional direct laryngoscopy normally arise from the limited position angle of about 10-15 [ 5 ] . Standard direct laryngoscopy requires alliance of the unwritten, pharyngeal, and laryngeal axes in order to see the vocal cords. In contrast, indirect Laryngoscopes merely requires alliance of the guttural and laryngeal axes, which lie along similar angles as compared with the unwritten axis [ 6 ] . Insufficient laryngoscopic position constitutes the chief ground for hard cannulations.Without equal visual image, cannulation remains insecure and associated with elevated hazard for injury [ 7 ] . Therefore, different blade designs such as the McCoy purchase blade, DoA?rges cosmopolitan blade and so on were developed to better cannulation success. [ 8,9 ] Owing to staying cannulation troubles in some patients, instruments leting indirect glottic position such as flexible and stiff fiberscope, cannulations endoscopes and optical stylets were introduced [ 10-12 ] . However, extended costs and the demand for particular preparation basically contributed to a limited spread of many of these devices [ 13 ] . Therefore, anesthesiologists are still seeking for cannulation devices uniting first-class glottic visual image with simple and efficient usage. Over the last few old ages, video-assisted endoscopic techniques have successfully been introduced into assorted surgical subjects. In contrast, anesthesiologists have been loath to take up the advantages of the picture technique for their intents. The first efforts were undertaken with jury-rigged instruments uniting Laryngoscopes and flexible fiberscopes [ 14 ] . Today, several luxuriant picture Laryng oscopes are commercially available [ 15-18 ] . Whereas some devices feature a conventional Macintosh blade signifier, others show a distinguishable blade design. A marked curvature resembling oropharyngeal and hypopharyngeal anatomy enables a widened position. As a affair of fact, airway direction in injury patients has turned out to be exceptionally critical [ 19 ] . In instance of hurt and instability, motion of the cervical spinal column can do irreversible harm to the spinal cord [ 20 ] . Attachment of stiff or semi-rigid cervical neckbands are a compulsory measure in exigency medical attention but makes ETI by standard laryngoscopy much more hard or even non possible [ 21 ] . Video Laryngoscopes ( VLs ) , which allow an indirect position of the glottis, may therefore ease ETI even when the direct glottic position can non be obtained and better visibleness of the vocal cords [ 22 ] . The broad handiness of VLs poses the inquiry whether their usage can ease ETI safe and speedy even without remotion of the cervical neckband.AIM OF THE WORKTo measure the safety and utility of glidescope, Airtraq and UE video-Laryngoscope use in anesthetized patients with fake ( with an immobilized cervical spinal column ) and expected hard cannulation con ditions in comparing to the Macintosh Laryngoscope.Patients and methodsEthical blessing was obtained from the Ethical commission in HUST, and written informed consent was obtained from all participants before registration in the survey. .Target population Patients which showing for elected surgery necessitating orotracheal cannulation, were recruited and indiscriminately assigned into two chief groups, each chief group include four subgroups of 20 patients. Type of the survey: Comparative, prospective, random clinical test survey An helper who was non involved in the survey obtained numbered opaque pre-sealed envelopes incorporating the randomized group allocations after each patient was enrolled into the survey. Anesthetists non involved in the aggregation or analysis of the informations performed all cannulation. GROUPE ( 1 ) : { expected hard cannulation } macintosh laryngoscope- – glidescope – Airtraq – UE video-laryngoscope GROUPE ( 2 ) : { fake hard cannulation } macintosh laryngoscope- – glidescope – Airtraq – UE video-laryngoscopeInclusion standards & A ; Exclusion standards: –GROUP ( 1 ) :Inclusion standards:Both sexi?†º Patients are ASA I or ASA IIi?†º Age 20-60 yearsi?†º Consent from patients about the nature of the survey and techniquei?†º Expected hard airway upon appraisal.Exclusion standards:Patient refused to inscribe in the research survey Ear, nose or throat surgery A demand for rapid sequence initiation or exigency surgery Any upset of the cardiovascular, pneumonic, hepatic, nephritic, or GI systems known from history or general scrutiny Patients with unstable cervical spinal column If the patient at hazard of pneumonic aspiration.GROUP ( 2 ) :Inclusion standards:Both sex Patients are ASA I or ASAIIi?†º Age 20-60 old ages. Consent from patients about the nature of the survey and technique.Exclusion standards:Patient refused to inscribe in the research survey Ear, nose or throat surgery A demand for rapid sequence initiation or exigency surgery. Any upset of the cardiovascular, pneumonic, hepatic, nephritic, or GI systems known from history or general scrutiny. Patients with unstable cervical spinal column If the patient at hazard of pneumonic aspiration. Expected hard airway upon appraisal. Morbid Obesity ( organic structure mass index & gt ; 35 ) . Study results: will be in the signifier of cannulation clip, laryngoscope clip, success rates, figure of tests, failure rate, air manner injury, hemodynamic response and glottic visual image grads with all picture assisted devices. A-Preoperative appraisalMedical history:History of chronic medical unwellness. Drug history. Anaesthetic history: including old anaesthesia, air passage troubles, and household jobs related to anaesthesias.Physical scrutiny:General scrutiny: Pulse, arterial blood force per unit area, respiratory rate and temperature. Heart, thorax and abdominal scrutiny. Local scrutiny Air manner appraisal for any troubles or any oropharyngeal hurt was noted before surgery Laboratory probes: Complete blood count. Prothrombin clip ( PT ) , INR, partial thrombokinase clip ( PTT ) , shed blooding clip. Electrocardiogram: for patients above 40years old. Anaesthetic appraisal: To except marks of hard cannulation 1 ) Airway Physical Examination ( Signs of expected hard cannulation ) A ) Interincisor distance: Less than 3 centimeter. B ) Visibility of uvula: Not seeable when lingua is protruded with patient in sitting place ( Mallampati category greater than II ) C ) Thyromental distance: Less than three ordinary fingers. D ) Length of cervix: Short. Tocopherol ) Thickness of cervix: Midst. F ) Range of gesture of caput and cervix: Patient can non touch tip of mentum to chest or can non widen cervix. [ 23 ] Demographic informations: The patient ‘s age, sex, ASA position and BMI was recordedB-Methods:Patients were prepared by fasting for at least 6 – 8 hours. Airway devices and anesthesia machine, ventilator, flowmeters and equipments checked were checked preoperatively. After canulation monitoring equipments will be attached to the patient including 5 leads ECG, non-invasive blood force per unit area, pulse oximetry and anaesthetic gas proctor.Initiation of anaesthesia & A ; cannulation:Patients were preoxygenated with 100 % Oxygen for 3 proceedingss, No sedation was given to the patients.Then all patients receivedi?s propofol 2-3 mg.kg i.v fentanyl 1.5 A µg.kg i.v cis- atracurium 0.5 mg.kg i.vDevicess:One of the helpers will help the anesthesiologist who will execute the cannulations. A Magill tracheal tubing with 7.5 millimeters internal diameter ( ID ) was used for all efforts. Lubricant was already applied to the tracheal tubing, and a 10 milliliter syringe to barricade the tubing ‘s turnup. The devices used for the survey were: ( 1 ) Standard Macintosh laryngoscope, blade 3 ( gold-standard ; HEINE Optotechnik, Munich, Germany ) . ( 2 ) Glidescope Ranger, Cobalt blade # 3 ( Verathon Inc, Bothell, WA, USA ) . ( 3 ) Airtraq, Size 3 ( Prodol, Madrid, Spain ) . ( 4 ) UE Video Laryngoscope, medium size blade ( China ) A semi-rigid stylet was inserted in the tracheal tubing when intu-bation was performed with Macintosh and UE laryngeaoscope. The GlideRite stiff stylet was used for efforts with GlideScope. As the Airtraq have integrated counsel channels for the tracheal tubing, they were non designed to be used with a stylet and were accordingly used without any extra counsel.IN Group ( 2 )The patients ‘ lungs will so manually air out for 3 min before a stiff cervical neckband will be applied maintaining the cervix in a impersonal place. This is an established technique for imitating a hard air passage. Tracheal cannulation will so execute with one of the three picture laryngoscopes or mackintoshs laryngoscope, in conformity to the randomized allocation. IN Group ( 1 ) , the same thing as group ( 2 ) without apply the stiff cervical neckband.Parameter will mensurate1-Laryngoscope clip:Timess from the first contact with the device until accomplishment of a successful position of the glottis.2-Time to intubationWill be recorded as the clip from interpolation of one of the videolaryngoscope to visual aspect of an end-tidal C dioxide hint on the capnograph.3,4-Number of tests & A ; failure rate:If cannulation is unsuccessful at the first effort, or took longer than 180 s, or if desaturation is note on the pulsation oximeter ( defined as SpO2 & lt ; 93 % ) , the cannulation effort will halt and the lungs ventilate with an oxygen-volatile anesthetic mixture for 3 min. A 2nd effort will be allowed with the randomly allocated airway device. If cannulation is unsuccessful after two efforts, the protocol allow for the cervical neckband to be take and the patient ‘s windpipe to be intubated with the anesthesiologist ‘s instrument of pick. 5-Hemodynamics response: ( bosom rate, systolic and diastolic blood force per unit areas ) Will be recorded during the cannulation procedure with readings taken pre-induction, pre-intubation and at 3 and 5 min after cannulation 6-Glottic visual image mark: ( categorization of Cormack and Lehane, as modified by Yentis and Lee ) class I – full position of the glottis ; class IIa – partial position of the glottis ; class IIb – arytaenoids or posterior part of the cords seeable ; class III -only the epiglottis seeable ; class IV – neither epiglottis nor glottis visible.7- Airway injury:A careful scrutiny of the oropharynx, will be performed after cannulation to find any lip or mucosal injury. The presence of any of the followers will taken to be grounds of mucosal hurt: blood discolorations on the tracheal tubing upon extubation ; seeable lacerations in the oropharynx ; or any hemorrhage noted on the lips or oropharyngeal mucous membrane.8-Number of optimisation manoeuvres before tracheal cannulation.Each option technique add 1 point: repositioning of the patient, alteration of stuffs ( blade, Endo-tracheal tubing, alteration in stylette form ) , need for ( raising force, laryngeal force per unit area, jaw push )Statistical AnalysisThe IBM SPSS Statistics ( version 20 ) will be used for statistical analysis. The sample size of n = 20 participants was calculated to be sufficient to observe a standardised mean difference of ( 1.4 ) in the cannulation clip with a power of 80 % and reversible sig nificance degree of 5 % . All consequences are shown as agencies A ± standard divergence ( SD ) or figure ( % ) .The normal distribution of informations will be tested utilizing the Kolmogorov-Smirnov trial. Student ‘s t-test will be used for statistical significance of the difference in the average cannulation and laryngeal clip between the MAC group and each of the other groups ; Mann-Whitney trial will be used for non-parametric informations. One-way ANOVA will be used for statistical significance of difference in quantitative variables ( e.g. age, BMI, laryngeal & A ; cannulation clip and hemodynamic parametric quantities ) between the 4-devices groups. Paired t-test will be used for statistical significance of the average difference in hemodynamic parametric quantities ( in each group ) at pre-induction/pre-intubation clip and each of the other clip points ( 1-min, 3-min & amp ; 5-min ) . Categorical variables will be tested for statistical significance utilizing Chi-square trial ; Fischer Ã¢â‚¬Ë œs exact trial will be used when any expected frequence is less than 1 or 20 % of expected frequences are less than or equal to 5.A

MGMT458 U3 IP UPS Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

MGMT458 U3 IP UPS - Research Paper Example Internal package involves shipments done outside the USA and it operates in 220 nations (Dennis, 2011). The supply chain and freight wing involve forwarding and contract logistics operations. This involves the design, the execution and freight forwarding to destined places. The operations in this category also involve customs brokerage and customer care. The parcel industry in the American region has grown over the years, especially the freight transport section. The venture was transformed from a private enterprise to a full grown industry. The industry has a high amount of revenue, which surpasses most of the organizations engaging in the same business. The industry constitutes of Airborne, federal express, UPS and USPS.UPS makes the highest revenue per year, $20B, compared to the other carriers (Dennis, 2011). Information on the four carriers is available in the public domain. This enhances smooth flow of documents and other packages. Customers are able to access information on the carriers. This enhances efficiency and effectiveness of the carrier. Three of the four carriers have publicly traded shares, but the USPS is a government agency. Human resource retention is essential in the going concern of an entity. This can be achieved through thorough training of the personnel on the four sections of the parcel service delivery. A mastery of work skills makes employees appreciate their place of work, which will result in low rates of employee turnover. Additionally, the global operation scale will ensure that employees are satisfied with the dynamics of their respective places of

Cereal Aisle Analysis Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Cereal Aisle Analysis - Assignment Example Consumer behavior process comprises of different stages which are undertaken by every customer. These stages are problem recognition, information search, and evaluation of alternatives, purchase decision, purchase and post-purchase evaluation. Customers need to firstly identify their need with respect to purchasing a product or service. This kind of need is further utilized to search information and take appropriate action. All possible alternatives available in the market place are identified by customers. Finally purchase decision is made and products or services are purchased (Alba and Hutchinson, 2008). Growth or success of a brand depends on post purchase evaluation. I visited a local grocery store where I observed behavior of three consumers who were going towards three different aisles. All of the three consumers had different demand such as one wanted to purchase breakfast cereals, another was looking at bread aisle, and third was visiting cereal aisle. Customer A had a need for breakfast cereals and the lady was visiting the store outlet with her kid. She compared prices of all breakfast cereals kept on the track and selected some like Kellogg’s, Lucky Charms and Cocoa Puffs. However while making final purchase decision her kid put across his preference towards Kellogg’s Apple Jacks. The lady finally purchased breakfast cereal of Kellogg’s. On the other hand, customer B was in a hurry, he smartly moved in and went to specific department to purchase a particular brand’s bread.

Does Mary have a choice in the matter of her pregnancy Do you agree Essay

Does Mary have a choice in the matter of her pregnancy Do you agree - Essay Example The Christian adherence to the proposition that Jesus, the son of God was conceived of a virgin of virtuous and unique qualities is not unknown to religious beliefs. For example, Buddhists subscribe to a vastly similar theory that Buddha was conceived by Maya, also a virgin of marked uniqueness. (Woodman) Virginity which speaks of purity are not the sole determining factors in these women finding favour with divinity. It is their faith and belief in the wisdom of the divine that dictates that neither woman would question or object to the divine decision to impregnate them with the son of a higher power. Mary too is described as having a close connection with God even as a child, she prayed often and the angels of God often communicated with her. According to the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, Mary’s destiny was determined by the divine as early as age three. The Gospel documents the following: Israel; and when she was three years old, she walked with a step so mature, she spoke so perfectly, and spent her time so assiduously in the praises of God, that all were astonished at her, and wondered; and she was not reckoned a young infant, but as it were a grown-up person of thirty years old. She was so constant in prayer, and her appearance was so beautiful and In each case, both women are predestined for greatness or at the very least uniqueness. Maya, like Mary are both enamoured with what appears to be divine characteristics that set them apart from ordinary mortals. Mary in both her beauty and her close connection to God and Maya in her beauty and her likeness to a Goddess. In each case the inescapable conclusion is that both women were chosen by the divine for those characteristics that ensured that neither woman would deny their destinies. As such Mary did not have a choice the choice was made by a higher power, one that

Business Law Ethics - Utilitarianism, Kantian and Virtue Ethics Case Study

Business Law Ethics - Utilitarianism, Kantian and Virtue Ethics - Case Study Example The waiters are university students who need to pay their university bills; Mike the chef is the sole breadwinner of his family who fends for his young family. (Hoffman, Frederick & Schwartz, 2014). If the business is closed due to its bad hygiene, the customers may shun from the restaurant even after being reopened. The loyal customers might feel cheated and disappointed due to the unhygienic food they have frequently been served (Hoffman, Frederick & Schwartz, 2014). The closure of the business will affect the surrounding community due to its bad reputation. The community provides the business with labour and other social values like goodwill, which when broken would be so hard to replace (Hoffman, Frederick & Schwartz, 2014). By the restaurant being closed, the local government may lose its periodical levies due to lack of operation of the restaurant. The government depends on fiscal policies like taxes to implement its strategic and short-term objectives (Hoffman, Frederick & Schwartz, 2014). Ted should remit the $500 bribe in order to maintain the happiness of his key stakeholders to avoid future problems. The stakeholders would greatly suffer socially and financially in case Ted refuses to part with the amount. (Hoffman, Frederick & Schwartz, 2014). In Kant theory, actions should be governed by the accepted principles of Maxims. Universal acceptability will not conform to Ted’s issuance of the bribe due to its negative perception globally. In terms of respect, Ted respects the well being of his employees and that’s he should pay to safeguard their future (Brenkert & Beauchamp, 2010). When formulating a maxim against bribery and later testing it against the categorical imperative, two results are realized. The first maxim fails in Universal acceptability because bribery is an economic crime worldwide. The second maxim against respect conforms to the categorical imperative; this is due to Ted’s respect to his key stakeholders.  Ã‚  

CRIMINAL LAW - HOMISIDE Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

CRIMINAL LAW - HOMISIDE - Assignment Example 23). With reference to the above given question, this paper will determine the accuracy and the type of homicide that was involved in the two cases given. In addition to that, this paper will identify the relevant points that will be able to prove that the offences that were committed were committed by the said parties. This paper will also cite correctly the legal authorities and scholarly opinions which support or refute those arguments. In the case study given above, Peter committed the act of hiding behind the fence in Quinn’s field with the intention of startling the horses and riders but instead, the act led to the death of Quinn who fell from a horse which was startled by Peter. At the same time, Derek and Cedric who were hunting together with Quinn, picked up Peter, carried him out of the field and threw him into a lake. As a result, there were two murders, that is, that of Quinn who was killed unintentionally by Peter and that of Peter who was killed intentionally by Cedric and Derek. In the first case where Quinn was killed by Peter, that kind of murder is known as involuntary manslaughter according to the English legal system. ... This act can also be put in the category of manslaughter by gross negligence. This is where one ignores all the risks involved in the act and goes ahead to commit it which later leads to the death of another human being. In this case, Peter had foreseen that there was a possibility of a rider falling from a horse as he startled it but ignored the fact and went ahead to commit the act which in turn led to the death of Quinn. There are four stages of gross negligence known as Adomako test that was presented by the House of Lords in the United Kingdom (Slapper & Kelly 2011). The Adomako test involves stages which are; a duty of care of existence to the deceased. This is a stage which arises when; a person commits an act without being reasonable or being able to foresee the results of his / her actions because some the acts may lead to death. In this case study Peter was not reasonable when he committed the act of startling the horses knowing very well that this act may cause injury or h arm to another person but instead caused death to Quinn. If Peter had the duty of care to the other human beings, he would have foreseen the results of his actions and would have been able to foretell what would have happened if he continues with his intentions. In this case, Peter foresaw the results of his action and was not reasonable enough to know that his actions can cause injury or even murder to a fellow human being. Therefore, there was a breach of the duty of care by Peter towards Quinn. A breach of the duty of care is where a person may not be able to act as a reasonable person would have in their possession (Wheeler 2002, p. 42). In this case, Peter did not act as a reasonable person would have acted in his position and

Womens Political Participation in Iraq Research Proposal

Womens Political Participation in Iraq - Research Proposal Example In this vein my dissertation explores whether these expectations have been achieved five years down the lane since the Iraq war. My initial research in the field of investigation of 'women and political participation' as I sifted through academic and political commentaries pertaining to the issue of women and empowerment reveals that there is a recurring trend of the problems that women face throughout the globe. It is also possible to see that the women's participation in the democratic process in Iraq can be divided into historical phases. Whereas the decade of the sixties witnessed a growth in the number of more politically aware women in the country's economic, political and civil spheres of the society particularly through the public/government sector. The advent of the Bathist party in the early seventies also saw the "Education for all" initiative which made women's liberation a supreme tenet of its agenda based upon the prevalent socialist ideology .This is did little for the private sphere as the Muslim Shariah laws were discriminatory against women. Things did not look good for the development of the "Women's liberation" in the mid eighties which witnessed an Iraq tumultuously struggling in the Iraq-Iran conflict and the birth of an increasingly secularist state which targeting the clerical fundamentalist minority of the country's political arena. The subsequent suppression of this fundamentalist element caused social conservatism so where as the women were active economically but politically their position weakened and this caused the decade to witness an increased breach of women's rights and liberties. The nineties saw a wave of religious fundamentalism backed by the public sector and there was an increase in Burqa and Hij ab clad women and there were less women in the work force and colleges. The decaying economy and the decreased salaries were equally pivotal in discouraging women's work and education. It is often said that the condition of women's liberation and empowerment was worse under Saddam's regime than compared to Afghan women under the Taliban and it is often argued that the political and economic status of women was greatly brutalized under Saddam.At the end of the war it is estimated that only 25% of Iraqi women are literate and nearly 20% of the women are employed. (UNESCO estimates). Literature Review Proposed Division of Chapters in the literature review It is intended that this literature review will consist of 4 chapters Chapter 1, Women Political Participation Global facts and figures; this will include the number of seats that

Response Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 8

Response Paper - Essay Example In addition, the context that the author uses is more persuading as compared to Frye’s article. This is because Brady uses a more personal perspective when putting across her points. Here, Brady uses herself as the main point of reference, which makes the argument livelier and convinces more because it is written from a personal perspective. The choice of words in Brady’s article is also strategic in that the article is easy to comprehend by almost any individual in the society. This implies that it was written for the general audience. It also incorporates an interesting theme, which any person would like to read. On the other hand, Frye’s article argues using a second individual as the point of reference. This makes the article less convincing as compared to one that is written from a personal perspective. In addition, the choice of words by Frye is carefully done for a specific group of the population; the highly literate. Frye is also judging when he gives a general perspective on how most people think and misuse the word ‘think’. This article is not only less convincing because of the judgmental style used but also because of difficult word choice application. The title of the article is also negative and discouraging. The author also uses colloquially especially in the title. The main theme that the author adopts, which is that thinking takes place when an individual puts down ideas using the right words is confusing. This is because this theme does not specify what is meant by ‘right words’. This is in contrast to Brady’s theme, which is straightf orward requiring less effort in understanding. Brady’s theme gives the reader an immediate idea that the article would encompass certain reasons as to why the wife is needed. Frye’s article is confusing. This is one of the main reasons why I view this article as least

Quota Printing Essay Example for Free

Quota Printing Essay The best things in life are free. However, anything that is provided without any controls attached should impose a certain degree of responsibility. This will ensure that the overall efficiency of the right can be maximized by all individuals concerned. In the case of the free printing abuse in the library, the best possible resolution is to implement an individualized imposition of responsible printing instead of simply making the facility available without limitations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One possible solution for the problem is to implement a quota for printing per student. Each enrolled individual will have to register first in the database in which they will have to input their complete name and student number. Afterwards, the library can impose a printing system which will allow each student to avail the first 50 to 100 pages (depending on the decision of the library) of printing free for the entire semester. The next pages thereafter shall be charged a definite amount of at least about five cents per page as noted in the article. This way, the students will have the responsibility to only use their free pages of printing in an efficient way which will help them become responsible. Moreover, five cents worth of printing page is still reasonable for any student’s budget allowance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   For the concern of having to wait long queue of printing, the library can install one more printing machine in the library. Because of the great savings in resources (paper, electricity, ink) and the possible accumulation of budget coming from the 5c/page beyond quota charges, is it possible to purchase another equipment to make printing faster for all the students who want to request for a printing job. Of course, the same implementation ruling should be provided to the second printer which will be connected in the single student user database for the number of printed page monitoring.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is always an exciting experience to acquire something without any charges. But sometimes, it is inevitable to encounter inconsiderate individuals who would only want to abuse something that is free. In order to resolve this problem, it is always necessary to impose a definite restriction in free services to help each user become responsible. A simple limitation rule can greatly help a free system effective.

Study On The Alternative Medicine Reflexology

Study On The Alternative Medicine Reflexology Presently there are various methods of treatment for different types of diseases, such as cancer, asthma, and multiple sclerosis, and alternative medicine is becoming more prevalent among people despite the advanced technology. Many people nowadays try to avoid the use of medications because of the side effects. this is why people are attracted to alternative therapy techniques, because they want an effective treatment that is not costly and does not cause any harm. There are over a hundred different types of alternative medicine and the number is still growing. A few examples are: chiropractic, reflexology, hypnotherapy, reiki, ayurveda, kinesiology, homoeopathy, osteopathy, cranial therapy, various types of acupuncture, colour-therapy, massage, and sound therapy [1]. For example, Reflexology has been widely used in fields such as midwifery, orthopedics, neuroscience and palliative care [2]. 1.1 What is Reflexology : Reflexology is the physical act of applying pressure to the feet and hand with specific thumb, finger and hand techniques without the use of oil or lotion [3]. It is also called zone therapy, based on the notion that each body part is represented on the hands and feet and that pressing on specific areas on the hands or feet can have therapeutic effects on other parts of the body. The body is divided into 10 longitudinal zones-five on each side of the body. Each organ or part of the body is represented on the hands and feet; massaging or pressing each area can stimulate the flow of energy, blood, nutrients, and nerve impulses to the corresponding body zone and thereby relieve ailments in that zone[4]. Each part of the foot represent a reflex area that correspond to specific organ or part of the body, for example: the tips of the toes reflect the head the heart and chest are around the ball of the foot the liver, pancreas and kidney are in the arch of the foot low back and intestines are towards the heel This concept was furthered by physiotherapist Eunice Ingham into the modern practice of reflexology. Dr. William H. Fitzgerald, an ear, nose, and throat doctor, introduced this concept of zone therapy in 1915. American physiotherapist Eunice Ingram further developed this zone theory in the 1930s into what is now knows as reflexology. A scientific explanation is that the pressure may send signals that balance the nervous system or release chemicals such as endorphins that reduce pain and stress [11]. 1.2 The difference between Reflexology and Foot Massage: Reflexology is different from foot massage in that it involves more superficial contact, deeper pressure on certain parts of the foot and resembles a caterpillar-like movement. It has been claimed that by pressing the reflex zones, energy blocks or disturbances such as calcium, lactate or uric acid crystals are reabsorbed and later eliminated a process referred to as detoxification'[2]. In foot massage people typically use massage oil or lotion and use gentle gliding strokes all over the foot. Reflexology is quite different, while many people find reflexology relaxing. One of the reasons people often confuse the two is that some spas and salons advertise that they offer reflexology, but what people actually get is foot massage by a therapist who isnt properly trained or certified in reflexology [12 ]. 1.3 Reflexology Foot Chart: 1. Top of Head 2. Sinuses 3. Pituitary Gland 4. Temporal Area 5. Neck, Cervical 6. Upper Lymph Area 7. Parathyroid Gland 8. Ears 9. Eyes 10. Thyroid Glands 11. Shoulder 12. Lungs and Bronchi 13. Heart Area 14. Heart 15. Spine, Vertebra 16. Pancreas 17. Solar Plexus 18. Stomach Duodenum 19. Liver 20. Spleen 21. Spleenic Fixture 22. Gall Bladder 23. Adrenal Glands 24. Hepatic Flexure 25. Kidneys 26. Transverse Colon 27. Waist 28. Ureters 29. Ascending Colon 30. Descending Colon 31. Lumbar 32. Small Intestines 33. Sacral 34. Bladder 35. Ileo-Caecal Valve 36. Appendix 37. Sigmoid Flexure 38. Hip Lower Back 39. Coccyx 40. Sciatic Area 41. Rectum 42. Uterus 43. Prostate 44. Breast 45. Lymph Drainage 46. Fallopian Tubes 47. Lymph Nodes (Arm Pit) 48. Sacro Iliac Joint 49. Ovary or Testicle 50. Lymph Nodes (Groin) 51. Maxilla/Submaxilla (Jaw) 52. Tonsils 1.4 Reflexology Remedies: Some illness related to the: Skin: ACNE can be treated by applying pressure on specific areas; liver(19), gall bladder(22), adrenal glands(23), ureters(28), bladder(34), kidneys(25). Also ECZEMA can be relieved by applying pressure on other areas; Parathyroid glands(7), adrenal glands(23), kidneys(25), ureters(28), bladder(34). Digestive system: ANOREXIA can be treated by applying pressure on certain areas; Thyroid glands(10), stomach duodenum(18), small intestines(32), transverse colon(26), descending colon(30), rectum(41). GINGIVITIS can be treated by applying pressure on other areas; maxilla submaxilla(51), STOMACHACH can be relieved by applying pressure on this areas: stomach(18), and DIARRHEA NAUSEA by applying pressure on areas; Stomach duodenum(18), small intestine(32), ascending colon(29), transverse colon(26), descending colon(30), rectum(41), lymph areas(6). Circulatory system: HYPERTENTION can be treated by applying pressure on these areas: Head(1), kidneys(25), ureters(28), bladder(34), ear(8). ANEMIA; Stomach duodenum(18), liver(19), pancreas(16), small intestines(32), ascending colon(29), transverse colon(26), descending colon(30), spleen(20). HEART PROBLEMS can be treated by concentrating the applied pressure on these specific areas: Heart(14), stomach duodenum(18), small intestine(32), ascending colon(29) and IRON DEFECINCY be treated by applying pressure onthis area in the chart: spleen(20). Nervous system: ANEXIETY can be decreased by applying pressure on these areas as in the foot reflexology chart; Head(1), adrenal glands(23), kidneys(25), ureters(28), bladder(34), duodenum(18), small intestines(32), transverse colon(26), descending colon(30), rectum(41), EPELIPSY; Head(1), lymph areas(6). MIGRAINE can be relived by applying pressure on these areas: Head(1), frontal and temporal areas(4). BACKACH can be relieved by applying pressure on specific areas; Hip and lower back(38), spine(15). Immune system: TUMOR (CANCER) can relieved its symptoms by applying pressure on specific areas; Spleen (20), lymph areas (6), tonsil (52) (also reflex areas relating to the cancerous regions). Respiratory system: ASTHMA can be treated by applying continuous pressure on these areas: parathyroid(7), lungs and bronchi(12), kidneys(25), ureters(28), bladder(34), lymph areas(6). Also BRONCHITIS can be treated by applying pressure on certain areas such as parathyroid(7), lungs and bronchi(12), adrenal glands(23), lymph areas(6). Joints: PAIN IN THE HIP JOINT can be relieved by applying pressure on certain areas such as adrenal glands(23), kidneys(25), ureters(28), bladder(34), neck(5), hip(38). INFLAMMATION OF THE HIP JOINT can be treated by applying pressure on certain areas such as stomach duodenum(18), kidneys(25), ureters(28), bladder(34), hip(38), waist(27), vertebra and spine(15). And Parkinsons Disease can be treated by applying pressure on certain areas such as Head(1), neck(5), parathyroid(7), adrenal glands(23), stomach duodenum(18), pancreas(16), liver(19), small intestines(32), colon areas(26,29,30), kidneys(25), ureters(28), bladder(34), rectum(41) [14]. 1.5 History of Reflexology: Around the world and throughout history reflexology has been rediscovered and reinstated as a health practice time and time again by peoples around the globe seeking to deal with health concerns. Archeological evidence in Egypt (2330 BCE), China (2704 BCE) and Japan (690 CE) points to ancient reflexology medical systems. In the West the concept of reflexology began to emerge in the 19th century, based on research into the nervous system and reflex. While no direct evidence of direct cross-fertilization from ancient times has been discovered, the practice of foot and hand work in a variety of cultures, belief systems and historical periods speaks to reflexology for health as a universal bridging concept [3]. Reflexology was introduced into the United States in 1913 by William H. Fitzgerald, M.D. (1872-1942), an ear, nose, and throat specialist who called it zone therapy. He used vertical lines to divide the body into 10 zones. Eunice D. Ingham (1899-1974) further developed reflexology in the 1930s and 1940s, concentrating on the feet of Mildred Carter and a former student of Ingham subsequently promoted foot reflexology as a miraculous health method. A 1993 mailing from her publisher stated: Not only does new Body Reflexology let you cure the worst illnesses safely and permanently, it can even work to reverse the aging process, Carter says. Say goodbye to age lines, dry skin, brown spots, blemishes with Body Reflexology you can actually give yourself an at-home facelift with no discomfort or disfiguring surgery[4]. Some reflexologists who deny that they diagnose or treat disease claim that the majority of health problems are stress-related and that they can help people by relieving the stress associated with various diseases or body organs. And this type of double-talk is similar to chiropractic claims that subluxations lower resistance to disease and that adjusting the spine to correct subluxations will improve health [4]. 1.6 The benefits of reflexology: Our bodies are endowed with a wonderful self-healing potential. Sadly, this potential often remains unfulfilled because the vital energy pathways are blocked by illness, stress, congestion, injury, and toxicity. By applying a constant and alternating finger and thumb pressure to the feet and hands, the reflexologist induces a prolonged state of deep relaxation. Through relaxation, the body returns to a state of balance (known as homeostasis), as the energy flows freely from fingers and toes to the head, and only then can the body heal it [5]. It has also been suggested that reflexology may help release stress and tension, improve blood flow of the body and promote homeostasis. Anecdotal evidence has shown that reflexology is beneficial in many conditions such as pre- and postnatal discomfort, pain, migraine and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Other therapeutic effects, such as strengthening the immune system, improving sleep quality and wound healing, have also been claimed [2]. Reflexology like other forms of body work, can have a variety of benefits including [6]: Structural benefits: assistance with physical problems such as pain and mobility Emotional benefits: help in providing nurturing and holding Energetic benefits: restoring and mobilizing energy for self-healing The benefits of reflexology in general include [3]: Relaxation Pain reduction Amelioration of symptoms for health concerns Rejuvenation of tired feet Improvement in blood flow Impact on physiological measures (e. g. blood pressure and cholesterol; measurements by ECG, EEG, and fMRI) Beneficial for post-operative recovery and pain reduction Enhancement of medical care (e. g. cancer, phantom limb pain, and hemodialysis patients) Adjunct to mental health care (e. g. Depression, Anxiety, Post traumatic stress disorder) Complement to cancer care (pain, nausea, vomiting, anxiety) Easier birthing / delivery / post-partum recovery 1.7 The theories behind reflexology: The theory that reflexology definitely works with the central nervous system of the body is built on the studies done in the 1890s by Sir Charles Sherrington and Sir Henry Head, who showed that there is a neurological relationship between internal organs and the skin and the bodys nervous system can adjust to a stimulus. Therefore according to this theory, a pressure applied to the hands, feet or ears will send relaxing and calming messages to various parts of the body from peripheral nerves in the feet, hands and ears [7]. The Gate Theory and The Neuromatrix Theory also explain why reflexology produces relief from pain and stress. The theories suggest that the brain creates pain which is a subjective experience in response to cognitive or emotional factors; therefore ones moods and factors like stress and tension can affect our experiences of pain [7]. Thus reflexology therapy reduces pain by improving the mood and reducing stress. Another theory states that the human body has vital energy and there is congestion or choking of the energy flow which causes illness and disorders in the body [7]. Surgical interventions and medical therapies continue to evolve and offer hope to people with acute and chronic diseases. However, both patients and healthcare staff aware that technology and aggressive treatments are not the only answer to providing care and improving wellbeing. Stone (2001:55) suggests that both UK and US there has been a significant shift towards integrated health care and greater tolerance towards the inclusion of complementary therapies by governments and the medical fraternity. There is evidence to suggest that an increasing number of hospital trusts are employing therapists or allowing volunteer practitioners to provide therapies such as massage, aromatherapy and reflexology. There are also a growing number of research projects reporting on the use and benefits of reflexology and foot massage in hospital wards, managing pain, reducing anxiety, improving perceptions of care [6]. With the fast development of reflexology, now there is something called clinical reflexology, which is an advanced form of reflexology. It covers the application of reflexology within specific areas of clinical practice, including maternity care, and palliative care. Clinical reflexology is adapted to the clients needs using the most effective techniques to help with the clients problems and issues [15]. 1.8 There is an arguing about the use of touch therapies such as reflexology in the hospital, and Ashcroft (1994) has highlighted the stresses of hospitalization with acute illness [6]: The anxiety arising from being in an alien environment Being disturbed constantly for clinical observations and the administration of often uncomfortable medical investigations and treatments. Fear of dislodging intravenous and monitoring equipment Being unable to drink and eat normally Physical discomfort made worse by wounds, immobility, invasive catheters and sleep deprivation Intrusion from noise, light and smells Separation from friends and family 1.9 Where is Reflexology practiced nowadays, and for whom is used : Reflexology, although most commonly practiced in the community (Coxon 1998, Lett 2000) is now emerging as a choice for patients being cared for in mental health setting, maternity care and palliative care settings[6]. It has been suggested in the nursing literature that the introduction of reflexology and other complementary therapies in healthcare settings, could be an ideal non-pharmacological way of managing difficult symptoms, such as pain and nausea as well as reducing stress and limiting anxiety. Aside from the patient feeling the benefits, relatives too appear to gain satisfaction from the provision of reflexology [6]. Identifying when and for whom it is appropriate to offer reflexology present challenges. Currently, provision of reflexology in acute hospital settings is largely on an ad hoc basis, delivered by existing healthcare staff or as part of a pilot or research project (Dryden et al 1999) [6]. Volunteer reflexologists may visit wards and departments supervised by clinical staff, providing only short treatments without any remuneration to selected patients deemed suitable for treatment. Finding a mutually convenient time is important, avoiding mealtimes, ward rounds and at peak visiting in the early evening. Dryden et al (1999) found that the best time to offer treatment was early afternoon, when the ward had a rest period and there were few visitors [6]. 2. Many literature reviews about the studies that been conducted to see the effectiveness of reflexology technique on symptoms occurs in patients with chronic diseases such as cancer and osteoarthritis. A study done by Nancy L.N Stephenson et al. on the effects of Foot reflexology on anxiety and pain in cancer patients. It is a quasi-experimental, pre/post and crossover study. A sample of 23 inpatients from different medical/oncology units in hospitals of southeastern united states with breast or lung cancer were participants in this study. The majority of the sample were female, Caucasian and 65 years old or older who were receiving regularly scheduled opioids and adjuvant medications on the control and intervention day. The patients were divided into two groups randomly. Group A: receiving a foot reflexology to both feet for 30 minute total by a certified reflexologist in the first contacts and group B: receiving the same intervention in the second contact. The pain and anxiety were measured using two instruments; the VAS, the simpler one and the Short-Form McGill Pain Questionnaire (SF-MPQ) prior and post the intervention time. The VAS used to measure the anxiety, is a 10-cm lin e with verbal anchors at each end stating not anxious at all to the most anxious I have ever been(McGuire, 1988). Following the foot reflexology intervention, patients with breast and lung cancer experienced a significant reduction in anxiety. Also one of three pain measures showed that patients with breast cancer experienced a significant decrease in pain. An additional study is required to determine the effects of foot reflexology on pain as measured by the intensity sections of the SF-MPQ, the VAS and IPP. There were no significant decreases in pain between the two groups because the crossover design allowed the 23 patients to be their own control; some of them were taking medications to manage their pain. Limitation of this study were the small sample size and the crossover design [8]. When reflexology is provided in a palliative care setting it is essential that the patient is at the center of the treatment process because living and dying is ultimately a unique, intimate and personal journey. Reflexology can offer a means of relieving physical symptoms and of facilitating emotional and spiritual wellbeing, but requires the therapist to practice with awareness, sensitivity, intuition and adaptability. Reflexology cannot promise sustained improvements in physical health but can provide therapeutic touch and the space and attention to support patients in connecting their mind, body and spirit [2]. Reflexology can also be invaluable in helping carers to cope both before and after the death of their loved ones. It is vital that reflexologists acknowledge their contribution within the team of health professionals involved in caring for the person and the family and the need for practice to be based on contemporary evidence-based knowledge. Sensitivity and humility enable the practitioner in reflexology to provide holistic, individualized and appropriate care for people at perhaps the most difficult time of their lives [2]. Another study is done by Miss.Serawal Haera et al. about the effect of reflexology on joint pain in knee osteoarthritis patients on 21 May, 2003. A quasi-experimental research method was used, a sample of 30 knee osteoarthritis patients with pain were selected by purposive method at the orthopedic clinic, outpatient department of Phrae Hospital. Simple change-over design was used in this study to compare the difference of joint pain scores among patients before and after intervention. The subjects were randomly assigned to the experimental period first followed by the control period, and vice versa. In the experimental period patients received reflexology for 1 hour/day for 7 days, and in the control period patients didnt receive reflexology for 7 days. The instrument for data collection were demographic data and information about knee osteoarthritis, the assessment of joint pain in patients with knee osteoarthritis, and a daily record of joint pain, medication used and daily activi ties. The data were analyzed by using frequency, mean, standard deviation and ANOVA for simple change-over design. The results of this study showed that the joint pain score in the experimental period after receiving reflexology was statistically significantly lower than during the control period. What this study revealed is that reflexology can be use as a complementary therapy to relieve joint pain and decrease drug used for pain relief [9]. In the study by Siev-Ner et al. (2003) the reflexology group demonstrated statistically significant symptom relief in a study of patients with multiple sclerosis. Compared with no improvement in the massage group, scores for urinary symptoms, paresthesia and spasticity were statistically significantly improved, whereas muscle strength revealed only borderline improvement at the end of reflexology. The improvement in paresthesia remained statistically significant at the 3-month follow-up [2]. Statistically significant reductions in the severity of hot flushes and night sweats, measured by a visual analogue scale (VAS), were reported after 6 weekly sessions of reflexology, but no statistically significant difference was found between the groups receiving reflexology and non-specific foot massage for menopausal symptoms in the study conducted by Williamson et al. (2002). In terms of general well-being, both the reflexology and non-specific foot massage groups demonstrated an improvement in the Womens Health Questionnaire (WHQ) score. However, the difference between the two groups was not statistically significant. Similarly, although improvements in the two sub scores (anxiety and depression) of the WHQ were detected, there was no statistically significant difference between the reflexology and foot massage groups [2]. In the study by Brygge et al. (2001), the outcomes of lung function tests including peak expiratory flow (PEF) and the ratio between forced expiratory volume in 1s and forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC) did not improve after reflexology in patients with bronchial asthma. In addition, the reflexology group was not superior to the sham foot massage group in lung function improvement [2]. No statistically significant changes in patients with irritable bowel syndrome were observed either within or between the reflexology and sham foot massage groups in the study by Tovey (2002). Abdominal pain, constipation/diarrhea, and bloating remained unchanged after the reflexology treatment [2]. Also about the edema of the feet in late pregnancy, women with oedema in late pregnancy perceived less swelling and tightness as compared with the pretest level in the reflexology treated group, according to Mollart (2003). However, there was no statistically significant improvement in mean ankle and foot circumference measurements after lymphatic reflexology. There were also no statistically significant differences among the lymphatic reflexology, relaxing reflexology and rest groups [2]. These studies showed that reflexology is can be used as one of the effective techniques in physical therapy treatments, because it showed an effective results in treating the symptoms of the common diseases that been treated with physical therapy such as pain in cancer, osteoarthritis, LBP, and MS. Reflexology also shows it is effectiveness in pregnancy and childbirth. Women who actively choose to receive regular reflexology during pregnancy have been shown to gain a degree of relaxation that indirectly impacts on the developing fetus [6]. Some women may have been attending for treatment prior to conception and may even have sought help for infertility, subfertility, or premenstrual syndrome. Anovulatory infertility may be resolved through the stimulation of the reflex zones for pituitary gland and ovaries whilst general relaxing reflexology can be helpful where stress and anxiety appear to be contributory factors. Stress, tension, anxiety and fear affect every pregnant woman to a greater or lesser degree [6]. Reflexology can have profound benefits at this time, although whether this is due to physical effects of reflexology, the therapeutic value of human touch or the psychological effects of interaction with the therapist is debatable. Specific physiological disorders of pregnancy can be treated effectively with reflexology or reflex zone therapy. Some physiological conditions respond with just one or two treatments of no more than 10 minutes duration, with no further appointments being necessary. These include nausea and vomiting, constipation, carpal tunnel syndrome and heartburn. Also reflexology can be extremely relaxing, pain relieving and psychologically comforting during labour. Following delivery, reflexology can be used to treat women with physiological disorders of the puerperium, including constipation, haemorrhoids, perineal discomfort and inadequate lactation. Relief from ongoing discomfort following epidural anesthesia, such as backache, neck pain or headache, can also be obtained (Tiran 1996) [6]. 3. The contraindications for reflexology are [10]: If the patient has contagious or acute infectious disease recent surgery of malignant tumor foot wounds, burns or infection deep vein thrombosis/phlebitis pregnancy (treatment should be done with caution to certain reflexes and caution should be taken particularly in the early stages of pregnancy) avoid reflexology when you are using alcohol or street drugs or strong pain medication such as morphine recent or healing fractures active gout affecting the foot osteoarthritis affecting the ankle or foot or severe circulation problems in the legs or feet should seek medical consultation before starting reflexology 4. The recommendations for developing and integrating reflexology in clinical practice [6]: Evaluate hospital provision of reflexology for benefits and find the best ways of delivering treatment through quality research and audit activities. Presentation of conference papers, workshops and poster sessions on complementary therapies, such as reflexology, covering various specialties. Share best practice in reflexology in journals covering a wide range of clinical areas, e.g. intensive care, accident and emergency, and orthopaedics Establish and/or practice in complementary therapy/reflexology networks and specialist interest groups to obtain support and share best practice. Establish and/or practice in a Trust or hospitals Complementary Therapy Committee Ensure that only qualified complementary therapists with experience in managing patient care in the private and public healthcare sectors are employed Support practitioners to complete courses in specialist application Provide and support supervision and management arrangements for all practitioners providing reflexology, for example, by employment of a Complementary Therapy Coordinator/Practitioner 5. Conclusion: Reflexology should not be considered a cure for any condition. It is used to relieve or reduce symptoms, problems, and stress affecting the body. Health professionals should be cautious about a reflexologist who claims that this is a valid way of assessing health or for treating diseases. Even reflexology is not a cure but is a technique to reduce the symptoms associated with chronic diseases. From my perspective, I think that physiotherapist should become familiar with the benefits of reflexology and master this amazing technique so they can use it in their treatment sessions; because it is effective in reducing anxiety and pain in cases of chronic diseases such as cancer. There is very little researches about the effects of reflexology. As such studies were set up to examine the effects of reflexology treatments on cancer, arthritis, LBP, MS and pregnancy symptoms, the results were qualitative and quantitative and showed that there are a number of areas of possible benefit for pati ents with these chronic diseases. But a larger scale study with a longer time frame is needed for a full evaluation of these effects. At the end, I would like to clarify that physical therapy is different from reflexology, but that does not prevent to use it in the treatment of some chronic conditions that are difficult to relief their complicated symptoms by using only physical therapy techniques.

coffee, tea, or opium :: essays research papers

â€Å"Coffee, Tea, or Opium?†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In â€Å"Coffee, Tea, or Opium,† the authors main point is that even at this point in history some rulers felt that drug importation throughout other countries was immoral for their economic and social status. China’s commissioner for foreign trade, Lin Zexu wanted to stop the illegal importation of opium into his country. Lin saw that the opium trade was damaging the publics health and was bleeding China of its wealth. The emperor of Manchu had given Lin extensive power and ordered him to control the demand of China’s people for opium and force the barbarian merchants to cut off the supply.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Throughout this article Wilson shows that as the years past the opium use in China grew substantially: â€Å"During the trading season of 1816-17, about forty-six hundred 150-pound chests of opium entered China. This number rose to 22, 000 by 1831-32 and 35,000 by 1837-38.. That was more than 5.25 million pounds of opium, the carefully collected and dried sap extruded from 4.8 trillion opium poppies† (Wilson pg 38). Not only was the did it spread rapidly into China, but other countries found that highly addictive substances made great profits in exportation. The traders were not the only men making a quick dollar, but the middlemen, and the farmers as well. The people that fell short we the addicts themselves and the importing countries, due to the fact that the opium ran up uncontrollable trade deficits.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  England and other countries profited by exporting opium into China because these countries were receiving goods like tea and silk while China was getting opium. This meant that the other countries were getting items they could sell and receive items that were reusable or they could use for resell in their country for higher prices than what they had spent in China. Not only that but they could sell small amounts of opium for a large sum of money.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lin wrote a letter to Queen Victoria to explain his troubles about the effects opium was having on his country, but to no avail. All he wanted was someone who understood his desire to stop the selling of opium in China. Hoping that the Queen would respond and agree with him never happened. Unfortunately the British were determined to keep the sales going even if it meant by force. They wanted to keep the profits in by taking some of China’s main ports.

A War America Could have Won :: American America History

A War America Could have Won North Vietnam was battling for ownership of South Vietnam, so they could be a unified communist nation. To prevent the domino effect and further spread of communism, the USA troops in 1965 went into action against the Viet Cong until 1975. Not only did the greatest superpower in the world get bested by a third world nation, but also lost badly. Perhaps this war could have been won, or prevented in the first place. The USA could have and should have won this war, with a combination of better weapons usage, better tactics and better support from their home country. The First American combat troops in Vietnam landed at Da Nang in 8 March 1965 to defend the air base. With the exception of the nuclear weapon, every piece of equipment in America's mighty arsenal was used in the war. The USA President Lyndon Johnson said "Our goal was to deter and diminish the strength of the North Vietnamese aggressors and try to convince them to leave South Vietnam alone"#. Johnson limited the conflict to an air war at first, hoping to pound away and push the Viet Cong into giving in. He used planes such as the B-52 bomber to try to win the war as quickly as possible. So he unleashed a continuous bombing raid on North Vietnam. This was the raid known as 'Operation Rolling Thunder'. American scientist created an array of ultra-sensitive devices to detect the army. THE B-52 dropped bombs in large amounts of the defoliating gas, Agent Orange. Hundreds of millions of acres of jungle were destroyed and even fields of rice paddies were poisoned because of Agent Orange. Agent Orange was supposed to eliminate the Viet Cong's advantageous hiding places, but it only turned the people the American's were fighting for against them even more. Yet another type of bomb was used. Napalm was also another mistake. By using a flammable jelly to literally burn up all of North Vietnam, the USA not only killed more civilians than soldiers, but also raised several ethnical questions. Weighing the consequences of using weapons such as napalm and Agent Orange, the USA quite possibly could have won the Vietnam War completely through the use of air power. More tonnage of ordinance was dropped in any given week during Vietnam than during all other wars in the history of the world combined.

War and Peace and Tolstoys View of History Essay -- Tolstoy War and P

War and Peace and Tolstoy's View of History      Ã‚  Ã‚   Count Lev Tolstoy wrote abundantly on the philosophical issues that he felt were universally important.   One of the most prolific examples of this is his view of history.   This is set out most clearly and most famously in his largest work, War and Peace.   As Tolstoy claimed himself in a public statement on the work, 'War and Peace is what the author wanted and was able to express in that form in which it was expressed.'   Not only do the themes and incidents in the novel reflect his theory of history, Tolstoy iterates this in less narrative terms in the twelve chapters of the Second Epilogue, described as, 'A general discussion on the historians' study of human life, and on the difficulty of defining the forces that move nations.   The problem of freewill and necessity.'   The view of history explored by Tolstoy has had few sympathisers and copious critics.   Tolstoy predicts this disagreement earlier in War and Peace in his description of 'the life of a bee':    A bee settling on a flower has stung a child.   And the child is afraid of bees and declares that bees exist to sting people.   A poet admires the bee sucking from the chalice of a flower, and says it exists to suck the fragrance of flowers.   A beekeeper...The higher the human intellect rises in the discovery of these purposes, the more obvious it becomes that the ultimate purpose is beyond our comprehension.   All that is accessible to man is the relation of life to the bee to other manifestations of life.   And so it is with the purpose of historical characters and nations.    This presupposition of the impossibility of a total, ultimate view of history helps to explain why Tolstoy, in his view of human actio... ...rriere, Tolstoy's Pierre Bezukhov - A Psychoanalytical Study, Melksham: Bristol Classical Press, 1993. Helen Edna Davis, Tolstoy and Nietzsche, New York: Haskell House Publishers Ltd., 1929. I Cannot be Silent - Writings on Politics, Art and Religion by Leo Tolstoy, Chippenham: The Bristol Press, 1989. E. H. Carr, What is History?, St Ives: Penguin Books, 1987. Pauline Marie Rosenau, Post-Modernism and the Social Sciences, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.    Notes 1 F.F. Seeley, Tolstoy's Philosophy of History, From, Ed. Malcolm Jones, New Essays on Tolstoy, Bristol: Cambridge University Press, 1978, p. 176. 2 Ibid., pp. 178 - 183. 3 Edward Wasiolek, War and Peace: The Theoretical Chapters, From, Ed. Harold Bloom, Modern Critical Interpretations - War and Peace, New York, Chelsea House Publishers, 1988, pp. 92 - 97.   

Scientific Evidence Which Lead to the Fluid Mosaic Model

The scientific evidence which lead to the fluid mosaic model 19th Century: The earliest models were very simple, as they suggested that lipid soluble substances entered cells faster than water soluble substances; scientists in those days had also figured out that the layers of lipid were layers of fat. However, the downfall of the evidence provided was that scientists back in the day were not able to provide information, as to how a lipid layer could remain stable in contact with the water surrounding the cell in its environment, since lipids are repelled by water. 0th century: Due to chemical analysis of isolated membranes, it was discovered that the membrane is largely made up of phospholipids and cholesterol. Digging deeper, it was revealed that phospholipids were amphiphilic: one head, which was soluble in water, and two tails, which would face inwards towards each other. This added to the bilayer remaining stable. 1934: A new model was proposed by Davson-Danielli, since the new model suggested both sides of the bilayer to be coated with water-soluble proteins.Therefore, through extensive chemical analysis, it was revealed that there was a lot of protein in the membranes. Even though membranes were thought to be more permeable to lipids than water, the membrane was able to absorb water faster than a pure phospholipid layer. 1970: Davson-Danielli’s model and theory was still accepted, since micrographs showed that membranes had a three-layered-structure.Before the fluid-mosaic model: Due to advances in chemistry and biology, Davson-Danielli didn’t seem to explain coherently how such fluidity could occur without tearing or breaking bonds. Due to new chemical methods, it was stated that the proteins of membranes were highly variable in both quantity and type. Sixty five years later: The fluid mosaic model was invented, which described the agreement of many scientists’ view on the cell membrane.

Macroeconomics Problem Set 1 Essay

To derive the PS approximation, data on GDP, Consumption, and Government expenditures was obtained from the website as detailed in the homework. Then using excel I was able to recreate the formula given with the actual data to get the approximation numbers. B. The true measure of PS was obtained much the same way as the approximation, only this time I used data for Private Sector Savings and Private Disposable Income pulled from the database instead of Y, C, and G. C. Attached. Overall it’s not a terrible approximation. There appears to be a rough five billion dollar inflation in the approximation from the true value, but over the course of time the trends remain similar. Every now and then you will see a significant dip in the approximation at the same time the true value significantly spikes, but aside from that they behave much the same, with a seemingly uniform $5 bil over-approximation across the years. E. For these two measures to be the same, there can be no government, and no international trading. The reason for no government is that taxes must be zero to allow for Y to stand alone in both denominators; also there must be no government deficit so as to allow for no interest payments. With no taxes and no deficit, it follows that there can be no government spending whatsoever (this takes care of removing transfer and interest payments from the first equation as well). As for having a closed economy with no imports/exports, this is because the Net Factor Payments have to equal zero to allow for these equations to equal each other.

Office Administration

Office Administration Project Learning Objectives At the end of this project students will be able to: Prepare an application for a job Complete application forms for employment Prepare various types of follow-up letters, letters of acceptance/non-acceptance Mark Scheme Task Description Mark Allocated Dream Job A. Reason for Interest In the particular Job chosen B. Qualifications necessary for the Job chosen 10 2 Resume Resume complete with all its relevant parts Dream Job Cover Letter Application Form Accurate completion of form 3 A. B. C. D. 8 4 Letter of applicationFollow-up letter Acceptance letter Letter declining offer Resignation letter Presentation A. Cover page (name, class, date project was given & due, teacher's name and title of project) B. Table of Contents (complete with headings and page numbers) C. Introduction (Give an overview of project) D. Acknowledgements E. Body of Project Conclusion (summary of the project and how they benefited from doing the project) G. Refer ence page Assignment Part 1 Outline what your dream Job is upon leaving school and the qualifications necessary for obtaining that Job. Remember it must be an entry level position.One paragraph should be sufficient. Part 2 Create a resume tailed for your dream Job. This resume must truly reflect who you are while containing all the necessary parts. Part 3 Letters You are charged with the responsibility of constructing a cover letter to accompany your dream Job resume. This application letter must be addressed to a suitable organization. The letter is to be typed in full block style. Letters must have proper grammar, spelling and punctuation. Part 4 Using the information provided on the advertisement for Sour Sop Grove Hotel sections MUST be completed.Worksheet Part 5 Soup Sop Grove Hotel is seeking an individual to fill a position of Requirements for Receptionist: Must have over 5 EX. subjects Mathematics and English included 0 Computer Literate (Microsoft Word, Excel and Publisher) Must be between age 18 and over Must have a bubbly and pleasant personality Must be able to work under pressure Requirements for Accounts Clerk: Must have over 5 EX. subjects Accounting, Mathematics and English included Must have Cookbooks basic knowledge Must be able to work under little or no supervision Computer Literate Microsoft Word, Excel and Publisher) All applicants must be citizens of Antigen and Barbuda or have rights to work in Antigen and Barbuda. Only suitable applicants will be acknowledged. All applicants are required to send applications to the following address. Soup Sop Grove Hotel Human Resources Department Linesmen Beach SST. Marry Antigen Deadline for application is December 7th, 2013 You are required to do the following: 1 .Application letter 0 Write a letter applying for one of the positions in the above advertisements. 2. Follow-up letter 0 You have not received a reply to your application to Sour Sop Grove Hotel for the session for which you applied. Two m onths have passed. Write a follow-up letter. 3. Acceptance letter 0 Assume that you have been offered the position for which you have applied at the Sour Sop Grove Hotel. You were sent two copies of a contract of employment. Write a letter accepting the position. Letter Declining the Offer 4. 0 Assume for some reason you have decided not to accept the post offered you at the Sour Sop Grove Hotel. Write a letter to the firm declining the offer. 5. Office Administration Office Administration Project Learning Objectives At the end of this project students will be able to: Prepare an application for a job Complete application forms for employment Prepare various types of follow-up letters, letters of acceptance/non-acceptance Mark Scheme Task Description Mark Allocated Dream Job A. Reason for Interest In the particular Job chosen B. Qualifications necessary for the Job chosen 10 2 Resume Resume complete with all its relevant parts Dream Job Cover Letter Application Form Accurate completion of form 3 A. B. C. D. 8 4 Letter of applicationFollow-up letter Acceptance letter Letter declining offer Resignation letter Presentation A. Cover page (name, class, date project was given & due, teacher's name and title of project) B. Table of Contents (complete with headings and page numbers) C. Introduction (Give an overview of project) D. Acknowledgements E. Body of Project Conclusion (summary of the project and how they benefited from doing the project) G. Refer ence page Assignment Part 1 Outline what your dream Job is upon leaving school and the qualifications necessary for obtaining that Job. Remember it must be an entry level position.One paragraph should be sufficient. Part 2 Create a resume tailed for your dream Job. This resume must truly reflect who you are while containing all the necessary parts. Part 3 Letters You are charged with the responsibility of constructing a cover letter to accompany your dream Job resume. This application letter must be addressed to a suitable organization. The letter is to be typed in full block style. Letters must have proper grammar, spelling and punctuation. Part 4 Using the information provided on the advertisement for Sour Sop Grove Hotel sections MUST be completed.Worksheet Part 5 Soup Sop Grove Hotel is seeking an individual to fill a position of Requirements for Receptionist: Must have over 5 EX. subjects Mathematics and English included 0 Computer Literate (Microsoft Word, Excel and Publisher) Must be between age 18 and over Must have a bubbly and pleasant personality Must be able to work under pressure Requirements for Accounts Clerk: Must have over 5 EX. subjects Accounting, Mathematics and English included Must have Cookbooks basic knowledge Must be able to work under little or no supervision Computer Literate Microsoft Word, Excel and Publisher) All applicants must be citizens of Antigen and Barbuda or have rights to work in Antigen and Barbuda. Only suitable applicants will be acknowledged. All applicants are required to send applications to the following address. Soup Sop Grove Hotel Human Resources Department Linesmen Beach SST. Marry Antigen Deadline for application is December 7th, 2013 You are required to do the following: 1 .Application letter 0 Write a letter applying for one of the positions in the above advertisements. 2. Follow-up letter 0 You have not received a reply to your application to Sour Sop Grove Hotel for the session for which you applied. Two m onths have passed. Write a follow-up letter. 3. Acceptance letter 0 Assume that you have been offered the position for which you have applied at the Sour Sop Grove Hotel. You were sent two copies of a contract of employment. Write a letter accepting the position. Letter Declining the Offer 4. 0 Assume for some reason you have decided not to accept the post offered you at the Sour Sop Grove Hotel. Write a letter to the firm declining the offer. 5.

Pregnancy: the Effects of Alcohol and Substance Abuse Essay

Abstract This paper examined the effects of alcohol and substance abuse on fetal development in expecting mothers. The critical periods of fetal development during pregnancy are reviewed and discussed in order to determine the effects alcohol and substance can cause during certain stages. In order to gain a more efficient understanding of the effects different substances can have on fetal development the following substances were studied: (1) alcohol, (2) cocaine, (3) opioids, (4) nicotine (smoking), and (5) cannabis sativa (marijuana). Each substance (previously listed) examined was provided with supporting evidenced of past research. Developmental (i.e. physical and mental) impairments were found to be common amongst the general population of newborn infants and children exposed to alcohol and drug substances in utero. Use of alcohol and drug substances during pregnancy not only put expecting mothers own health at risk, but their fetuses as well. Providing expecting mothers with proper treatment for alcohol and substance use has proven to be an effective method in reducing the risk of impairing their fetus’s development (i.e. physical, and mental) during pregnancy and later into childhood. It is essential to provide general awareness to the public about the affects that alcohol and substance abuse can have on fetal development and help pregnant women seek proper care. Pregnancy: The Effects of Alcohol and Substance Abuse on Fetal Development Today alcohol and substance abuse is continuing to increase across the general population, particularly among expecting mothers (Cohen &Inaba, 2007). Many infants being born today suffer from severe physical, mental, and behavioral deformities and impairments due to alcohol and substance exposure in utero (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Research has been continuously conducted in order to examine the effects different substances can have on a developing fetuses growth (i.e. physical, mental, and behavioral) in utero and after birth. The majority of their findings indicate a strong correlation between the time, type and amount of substances mothers use during their pregnancy and the effects it has on their fetuses (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). The purpose of this paper is to address these issues through several different concepts: (a) first, what are the critical levels of development in utero?, (b) an in depth review on substances associated with fetal impairments (i.e. alcohol, cocaine, opioids, nicotine, and cannabis sativa (marijuana)), supported by scientific evidence and possible treatment, and (d) identifying substance abuse in expecting mothers and reducing harm to the fetus. Critical Periods of Fetal Development The first critical period of fetal development is known as the germ cell period. This begins when a sperm and egg unite and their genetic information is fused together (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). During this period exposure to any form of toxicant substances (i.e. alcohol and drug substances) can potentially harm the germ cells development. This can have a direct impact on not only the mother’s fertility, but also her future child’s health (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). After the germ cells have developed past what is known as a single-cell zygote, they are now identified as a fetus (meaning they are capable of living outside of the mothers womb) and have reached the embryonic and fetal period of development (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). The fetus grows increasingly fast during this period, because it is consider more vulnerable to environmental and substance exposures than during other stages o f development (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). This is due to the fact that major organs are beginning to form, grow and develop, which will continue throughout the remainder of the pregnancy and infancy (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). Disruption of development (i.e. environmental toxins and substances) during this period can cause major defects in the structure of developing organs (i.e. brain cellular structure, lungs, heart, kidney, and etc.), and other important structures (i.e. bones and muscles). This may result in the death of the fetus or cause severe physical malformations (i.e. congenital abnormalities) or mental impairments (i.e. disorders) (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). As the stages of prenatal development progress, exposure to environmental toxins and substances can result in the fetus developing an array of defects and deficiencies that can continue after birth and up through adulthood (i.e. physical, mental, and behavioral) (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). It is clear that expecting mothers need to be conscious of what they expose their fetuses to in utero so they develop properly. It is imperative that expecting mothers avoid the use of any alcohol or other drug substances during their pregnancy. Each period of development for a fetus is critical and exposure to alcohol and substances can significantly reduce their chance of being born and living a healthy life (Office of Children’s Health Protection, 2003). The Effects of Different Substances on Fetal Development Expecting mothers need to be cautious of what they expose their growing fetus to throughout the entire pregnancy. Disruption of proper fetal development can cause severe deformities in the fetus physically, mentally, and behaviorally (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Expecting mothers ingest alcohol and drug substances leave their fetus susceptible to severe developmental impairments (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). The following areas will be covered in this section: (1) fetal exposure to alcohol, (2) fetal exposure to cocaine, (3) fetal exposure to opioids, (4) fetal exposure to nicotine, and (5) fetal exposure to cannabis sativa (marijuana). Fetal Exposure to Alcohol When expecting mothers consume alcohol they are immediately putting their fetus’s health at risk. Essentially they are leaving their fetus susceptible to not only structural deformities, but also a variety of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) (Feldman, pg.76, 2011). Out of all of the FASDs, fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is the most common. Statistics indicate that over â€Å"0.33-2.9 cases per 1,000 births have FAS† (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). FAS typically results in the fetus developing the following problems: (1) severe abnormalities in physical, neurological and behavioral functioning and development, (2) severely reduced weight and cranium size, (3) deformities of the face and other body parts (otherwise known as dysmorphia), and (4) are at higher risk for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) (Feldman, pg.76, 2011). In essence exposure to alcohol can significantly affect a fetus internal and external body structure, can cause neurological and behavioral abnormalitie s, and even physical deformities. Research Kenneth Jones (1986) supports this assumption through his studies on FAS. Jones (1986) findings suggest that FAS effects the development of the fetus’s brain and facial/bodily structures during utero and after birth. Typically children will be diagnosed with moderate to severe mental retardation due to structural deformities in their the brain (i.e. microcephaly, short palpebral fissures, and etc.) or they will be identified as having severe facial dysmorphia (i.e. long smooth philtrum, thin vermilion of the upper lip, joint anomalies, altered palmar crease pattern, and etc.) (Jones, 1986). Jones (1986) concluded that over 40% of infants who are born are born to alcoholic mothers, whom are then diagnosed with FAS. However, it is possible for doctors to reduce the chances of children developing FAS and other FASDs through preventive forms of treatment. The majority of times children are more susceptible to developing FASD due to the doctors inability to clearly identify the expecting mothers level of drinking (Bakhireva & Savage, 2011). If physicians are given the capability to identify expecting mothers regular drinking patterns they can provide her with alternative methods to drinking and reduce the risk of her child develop an FASD (Bakhireva & Savage, 2011). Bakhireva & Savage (2011) found that in identifying expecting mothers drinking levels, physicians would be able to detect the fetus’s risk for developing FASD and other neurobehavioral disorders later in life and prevent it. Bakhireva & Savage (2011) findings suggest that there are biomarkers that are more sensitive to alcohol metabolism, which are capable of detecting the alcohol in tissue types for longer periods of time since the mother last drank. This will then assist physicians in diagnosing fetal alcohol exposure and possible damage to the fetus, which will then help them discern what preventive measures need to be taken. Developing new methods of detection and prevention of FASD is one of the most effective ways to help children avoid severe d evelopmental impairments. Expecting mothers also need to be informed of the damages that alcohol exposure can cause and seek the necessary care. Fetal Exposure to Cocaine Today over 558,000 expecting mothers abuse cocaine (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH)(2005) cited by Cohen & Inaba (2007) determined that there was a â€Å"4% rate of cocaine use among women in their first trimester, 3% among those in their second trimester, and 2% among those in their third trimester†. Because of this expecting mothers need to become aware of how cocaine can affect their developing fetus. Typically the stimulants in cocaine affect the fetus’s heart, which leads to blood vessel to constriction. This causes unhealthy elevations of blood pressure in both the mother and fetus (Cohen & Inaba, 2011). For the fetus there life is put at great risk. This is because the mother’s body will stop the flow of any blood, nutrients, or oxygen from reaching the fetus and can cause retarted fetal development or even a stroke within the fetus’s brain (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). This type of constriction can also increase th e chances of the mother having a spontaneous abortion (due to the separation of the placenta from the uterine wall) or a premature delivery (in some cases (typically the third trimester) cocaine can induce labor) (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Even when an infant makes it through delivery the majority of them suffer from severe withdrawal symptoms. Signs of withdrawal typically consist of: (1) extreme agitation and irritability, (2) hyperactive movement and high respiratory rates, (3) seizures and tremors, and (4) uncontrollable sweating and crying (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Although physical deformities are common amongst the majority of substances infants are exposed do during utero, cocaine has been found to cause the most damage neurologically. Typically children exposed to cocaine show an increase in â€Å"neurobehavioral disorganization, irritability, and poor language development† (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). In fact researchers Brown, Bakeman, Coles, Sexson, & Demi (1998) studied the effects of cocaine and alcohol exposure during utero on mother’s newborn infant’s and how it affected their birth weight, length, ponderal index, and irritability levels. Researchers found that exposed infants showed an increase in fetal growth deficits, infant orientation, and irritability and a decrease in respiratory rate and proper motor development (only affected by cocaine exposure) (Brown, Bakeman, Coles, Sexson, & Demi, 1998). Cocaine exposure clearly has a severe effect on fetal development. Therefore it is essential that preventive techniques be discussed and reviewed for expecting mothers who are using. Just like alcohol use, there are methods to testing expecting mothers for cocaine use. The most commonly used methods are urine toxicology and serum toxicology, which helps detect â€Å"metabolite benzoylecgonine† (substance found in cocaine) from 72 hours to two weeks after the mother has used (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). In the majority of states today it is mandatory for expecting mothers to be routinely screened for drug use during prenatal doctor visits. In some states a positive test before delivery results in the arrest and incarceration of the expecting mother (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). Most health care providers, however, have argued that women should be given proper drug counseling, confidential screening, and referral for treatment and case management rather than criminal penalties (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). That way expecting mothers can receive the necessary treatment to help make sure the fetus is not harmed anymore than it already has. Essentially when it comes to cocaine use, expecting mothers, and what preventive measures to take, proper screening and treatment are most effective in making sure a fetus develops properly and is born healthy. Fetal Exposure to Opioids Opioids are the most common substance used by expecting mothers. Heroin and methadone are the two most abused. It is assumed that each year there are over 7000 opiate-exposed babies being born (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). Typically expecting mothers will continue to use opioids throughout their pregnancy. When expecting mothers use opioids it usually takes less than one hour for the substance to reach the placental barrier. After only 6 hours it is common for not only the mother to experience withdrawal symptoms, but her fetus as well (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). As the mother goes through withdrawal the substance epinephrine may increase in the amniotic sacks fluid, which could cause severe damage to the growing fetus (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). Continued use of opioids throughout a pregnancy usually results in the following: (1) fetal growth retardation, (2) premature abruption of the placenta (which leads to premature delivery, spontaneous abortion, miscarriage, or stillbirth), (3) neurobehavioral abnor malities (i.e. abnormal sleep patterns, behavioral problems, poor motor skills, learning disorders, mental retardation, and others), and (4) greater risk for Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). In some cases opioid use can cause the infant to experience Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome (NAS) (severe withdrawal after delivery). It can last from 48-72 hours to days, weeks, or even months. It all depends on how much the mother exposed her infant to during utero (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Symptoms of NAS are much more intense than an infant who may be withdrawing from nicotine or marijuana. When an infant is experiencing NAS they will exhibit the following characterisitcs: (1) extreme hyperactivity, agitation and irritability, (2) high-pitched crying, sweating and tremors, (3) intense muscle spasms, (4) restlessness, (5) increased respiration, (6) vomiting, and diarrhea, and (7) severe seizures, which may lead to death (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). If an infant successfully makes is through withdrawal they are capable of being cleaned of any opioid substance that they were exposed to during utero. Just as there are preventive measures for expecting mothers using alcohol or cocaine, there are preventive measures for mothers who use opiates. Today there are several clinical options for management of opiate use during pregnancy: (1) methadone maintenance, (2) the use of buprenorphine and naltrexone, and (3) opioid detoxification (usually done during the mothers second trimester) (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). Although not all risks to the fetus are eliminated with these types of treatment, the use of methadone, buprenorphine and naltrexone does help reduce the amount of spontaneous abortions and transmission of infections that opiate use usually causes (Bhuvaneswar, 2008). The main purpose of these methods is to essentially stop the mother from using altogether and reduce the chances of NAS when the child is born. If the expecting mother is able to detox and stop opiate use the chances of her child being born healthy is greater. Fetal Exposure to Nicotine There are over 2,000 different compounds that can be identified in one cigarette. Regardless of the many unhealthy substances contained in one cigarette, more than 17% of expecting mothers still smoke throughout their pregnancy (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Cigarettes contain both nicotine and carbon dioxide. Which are two known compounds capable of crossing over the placental barrier during pregnancy and reducing the fetuses supply of oxygen (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). However, restriction of oxygen to the fetus is only one concern. The expecting mother is also increasing her chances of having a premature delivery, miscarriage, or even a stillbirth. Nevertheless, premature births are the most common occurrences among expecting mothers who smoke (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Infants who are born prematurely are abnormally small â€Å"on average they weigh, 7 ounces less, are 1.4 centimeters shorter, and have a smaller head circumference compared with babies of nonsmoking and non-drug-abusing mothersâ €  (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Although less common than exposure to other drug substances, smoking can cause a variety of defects. The most typical are as follows: (1) congenital abnormalities (heart malformation, cleft lip/palate), (2) brain damage and nerve damage, (3) depressed immune system, (4) poor cognitive abilities (i.e. learning disabilities), and (5) increase chance of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Typically though cognitive abilities are most likely to be impaired. In fact researcher Karen Law (2003) studied the effects nicotine exposure can have on a fetuses neurobehavioral development after birth. Law (2003) found that the infants who were exposed to nicotine during utero were more excitable and hypertonic and showed higher stress levels and abstinence signs when born. Shea & Steiners (2008) research on the effects of prenatal exposure to nicotine found the same results as Law (2003). Shea and Steiners (2008) findings indicated that the nicotine from cigarettes directly affects the fetus’s placental vasculature. This can lead to cognitive and learning deficits in childhood and adolescents, increased risk of hypoxia induced brain damage, and an increased chance of perinatal mortality or even sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) (Shea & Steiner, 2008). Law (2003) and Shea and Steiner (2008) suggest that pregnant women need to avoid smoking during pregnancy in order to prevent serious impairments in neurodevelopment of their fetus. To the majority of expecting mothers exposing their fetuses to nicotine seems much less irresponsible than if they were to expose them to a substance like cocaine or heroine. However, research shows that smoking can and will affect expecting mothers children. May be not to the same extent as cocaine or heroine, but to a point where your child will still be incapable of proper development. Fetal Exposure to Cannabis Sativa (marijuana) It is said that over 17% of expecting mothers smoke marijuana (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Some mothers condone their use of marijuana throughout their pregnancy, because it is said to help reduce pain when labor occurs. Many people would suggest that the majority of studies today imply that the use of marijuana during pregnancy causes only minimal side effects to the overall health of a fetus. Therefore, it is acceptable for mothers to use when pregnant. This is not true. Jutras-Aswad, DiNieri, Harkany, & Hurd, (2009) studied the use of marijuana during pregnancy and the affects it can have on the fetus during utero and after birth. Researchers did this by examining the endocannabinoid (eCB) system and the effects it has on children’s behavior and mental health. Research indicated that eCB has a direct effect on the fetuses’ central nervous systems (CNS) patterning by influencing migration, survival, and differentiation of committed neurons. Researchers discovered that eCB affects the neuronal systems that control mood, cognition, reward, and goal directed behavior. This then effects the fetus’s brain development, which leaves them vulnerable to severe behavioral problems and neuropsychiatric disorders more so than others after birth. After reviewing this research it obvious that marijuana can have a direct impact on the fetuses brain development (Jutras-Aswad, DiNieri, Harkany, & Hurd, 2009). Although the affects may not be apparent during a mother’s pregnancy, they are clearly identified later in infancy and childhood. In fact previous research conducted by Richardson, Day, and Goldschmidt (1995) studied the effects of marijuana use during pregnancy. Children who had been exposed to marijuana during utero were assessed repeatedly during the neonatal period until the age of six. Results indicated that prenatal marijuana exposure became apparent around ages four through six. There was an increase in childre n’s behavioral problems (i.e. affected their goal directed behavior, planning, organized search, and impulse control) and a decrease in their performance on visual perceptual tasks, language comprehension, sustained attention, and memory (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). These findings support the theory that marijuana use during pregnancy can have an effect on children’s neurological development (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). So like many other drugs, it is strongly recommended that expecting mothers avoid the use of marijuana. Identifying & Providing Treatment for Substance Abuse in Expecting Mothers After reviewing the effects of alcohol and other drug substances on fetal development it is evident that expecting mothers need to abstain from substance use throughout their pregnancies. Rassool & Villar-Luis (2006) further support this assumption through their review on the effects that substance abuse can have on fetal development. Researchers identified several drug substances (i.e. alcohol, cocaine, opioids, nicotine, and cannabis) and found direct causes each substance has on expecting mother’s fetuses after birth. Researchers discovered the following primary concerns for each substance: (1) alcohol use can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome an d possible miscarriage of the fetus, (2) cocaine, opioids, and nicotine can cause perinatal complications and unwanted abortions, and (3) cannabis sativa (marijuana) can cause perinatal complications (miscarriage), intrauterine growth restrictions, abruption placentae, pre-term deliveries, and neurobehavioral abnormalities. After reviewing each substance and potential damage it can cause the Rassool & Villar-Luis (2006) suggest that different measures of prevention should be taken by expecting mothers to reduce the risk of harming their fetus. There are forms of prevention and treatment to help expecting mothers reduce the risk of harming their fetus’s development. The most efficient way to help expecting mothers find treatment is through using the necessary screening techniques in which physicians can identify alcohol or substance abuse (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). By doing so physicians can provide proper intervention, treatment, and preventive services to substance abusing mothers (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Typically expecting mothers who use drugs during pregnancy are classified as â€Å"AODs† (i.e. â€Å"pregnant women who use alcohol and other drugs†). The most commonly used instrument to identify AODs was developed by Dr. Ira Chasnoff (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). It is known as the 4Ps Plus Instrument, which consists of four basic questions that essentially help identify AODs (Cohen & Inaba,2007). The questions are listed below: 1.) Did either of your parents ever have a problem with alcohol or drugs? 2.) Does your partner have problem with alcohol or drugs? 3.) Have you ever drunk beer, wine, or liquor? 4.) In the month before you knew you were pregnant, how many cigarettes did you smoke? In the month before you knew you were pregnant, how much beer, wine, or liquor did you drink? Once women with AOD are identified they can properly be treated in order to protect the mother and the growing fetus. Treatment may not seem effective once the expecting mother has already exposed her fetus to alcohol or other substances, but that is not true. Although the fetus is still at risk for some developmental damage it is still possible to stop any more from occurring if the mother stops using. Researchers Mayet, Morgan, MaCormack, & Strang (2008) have support for this assumption through their assessment of mothers who exposed their children to substances during utero and then proceeded to attended perinatal addiction treatment throughout the remainder of their pregnancy. Researchers administered a cross-sectional audit of health-care records in order to compare the outcomes of women in 2002â€⠀œ2005 with data from 1989–1991 and the local (i.e. non-substance abusing women) maternity population in 2004–2005. Research found that less newborns required treatment for neonatal abstinence syndrome (NAS) in 2002–2005 compared to 1989–1991. However, there were higher rates of miscarriages, low birth weights, and premature infants, compared to the local maternity population between 2004–2004. Findings suggest that perinatal addictions treatment can be extremely beneficial to mothers abusing substances. It lowers the risk of the mother harming her fetus by reducing the amount of drug substances she exposes her fetus to. It also suggests that addiction treatments are becoming more evolved and are better servicing people compared to 1989-1991. In helping women become abstinent from substance use during their pregnancy it will help both them and their child live a healthier life during and after birth. Conclusion In conclusion, it is clear that alcohol and substance use is an increasing problem for the population of expecting mothers. As discussed in the paper the majority of expecting mothers are exposing their fetuses to the followings substances: (1) alcohol, (2) cocaine, (3) opioids, (4) cigarettes (nicotine), and (5) cannabis sativa (marijuana). Expecting mothers are unaware that they are putting their growing fetus at risk for severe developmental deformities and impairments (i.e. physical, mental, and behavioral) due to such exposure in utero and after birth. Not only that, but mothers are increasing their chances of premature deliveries, miscarriages, spontaneous abortions, and stillbirths. Even if their child makes it through delivery the majority of them experience severe Neonatal Abstinence Syndrome (NAS), Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), or are born with disorders like fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). However, there are preventive measures that can be taken to avoid substance-abusing mothers risking their fetus’s developmental health. If physicians are able to identify expecting mothers substance use they will be able to give them proper a treatment and care. This will help reduce the chances of the mother impairing her fetus’s development any further (Cohen & Inaba, 2007). Mothers will also be able to get â€Å"clean† and raise their child in a healthy environment. Although it may seem impossible, there are ways to help expecting mothers properly nourish their child back to health even when it comes to substance abuse. References Bakhireva, L. N., & Savage, D. D. (2011). Focus on: Biomarkers of fetal alcohol exposure and fetal alcohol effects. Alcohol Research & Health, 34(1), 56-63. Bhuvaneswar, Chaya (2008). Cocaine & opioid use during pregnancy: Prevalence & Management. Prime Care Companion J. Clinical Psychiatry. 10(1): 59–65. Brown, J. V., Bakeman, R., Coles, C. D., Sexson, W. R., & Demi, A. S. (1998). Maternal drug use during pregnancy: Are preterm and full-term infants affected differently?. Developmental Psychology, 34(3), 540-554. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.34.3.540 Cohen, W.E., & Inaba, D.S. (2007). Uppers, downers, all arounders (6th ed.). Medford, OR: CNS publications, Inc. Feldman, R. S. (2011). Development across the life span (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN:0558937071. Jones, K.L. (1986). Fetal alcohol syndrome. Department of Pediatrics; 8:122-126. Jutras-Aswad, D., DiNieri, J. A., Harkany, T., & Hurd, Y. L. (2009). Neurobiological consequences of maternal canna bis on human fetal development and its neuropsychiatric outcome. European Archives Of Psychiatry And Clinical Neuroscience, 259(7), 395-412. doi:10.1007/s00406-009-0027-z Law, K.L. (2003). Smoking during pregnancy and newborn neurobehavior. Pediatrics Vol. 111: 1318-1323. Mayet, S., Groshkova, T., Morgan, L., MacCormack, T., & Strang, J. (2008). Drugs and pregnancy—Outcomes of women engaged with a specialist perinatal outreach addictions service. Drug And Alcohol Review, 27(5), 497-503. doi:10.1080/09595230802245261 Rassool, G., & Villar-Luà ­s, M. M. (2006). Reproductive risks of alcohol and illicit drugs: An overview. Journal Of Addictions Nursing, 17(4), 211-213. doi:10.1080/10884600600995242 Shea, A. K., & Steiner, M. (2008). Cigarette smoking during pregnancy. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 10(2), 267-278. doi:10.1080/14622200701825908 The Office of Children’s Health Protection (2003).Critical periods in development. ICF Consulting, Inc.